NCERT Solutions For Class 10 History: Nationalism in Europe

Summary of the Chapter

This chapter traces the development of nationalism in Europe from the early nineteenth century to the outbreak of World War I. It begins with Frédéric Sorrieu's 1848 print, which visualised a world of democratic and social republics. This dream was in stark contrast to the reality of nineteenth-century Europe, which was dominated by multi-national dynastic empires rather than 'nation-states'.

The French Revolution of 1789 was the first clear expression of nationalism. It transferred sovereignty from the monarch to the French citizens, introducing ideas like la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) to foster a collective identity. Napoleon Bonaparte, while destroying democracy, incorporated revolutionary principles into his Civil Code of 1804 (the Napoleonic Code), which spread French administrative models across Europe.

Following Napoleon's defeat in 1815, the Congress of Vienna, led by figures like the Austrian Chancellor Metternich, established a new conservative order to restore monarchies and the balance of power. This sparked a counter-movement from revolutionaries and liberals (the emerging middle class). Liberals advocated for constitutionalism, parliamentary government, and economic liberalism (freedom of markets, or laissez-faire), exemplified by the creation of the Zollverein (customs union) in Germany in 1834. Revolutionaries, like Giuseppe Mazzini, formed secret societies (like Young Italy) to fight for national unification and republican ideals.

The period saw major "Ages of Revolution." The 1830 July Revolution in France sparked an uprising in Brussels, leading to Belgium's independence. The Revolutions of 1848 (the 'Spring of Nations') saw widespread liberal and nationalist uprisings. In Germany, the Frankfurt Parliament, a middle-class assembly, failed to unify the nation under a liberal constitution, as the Prussian king rejected their offer. This failure shifted the initiative for unification from popular revolution to conservative statecraft.

The unification of Germany was achieved "top-down" by Prussia, led by its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck. Using a policy of "blood and iron" (military force), he waged three wars (against Denmark, Austria, and France) between 1864 and 1871, culminating in the proclamation of the German Empire with Kaiser Wilhelm I as emperor.

The unification of Italy was a complex process involving three key figures: the revolutionary 'soul' (Mazzini), the pragmatic 'brain' (Prime Minister Cavour of Sardinia-Piedmont), and the popular 'sword' (Garibaldi and his 'Red Shirts'). Through diplomacy, alliances, and popular military campaigns, Italy was unified under King Victor Emmanuel II in 1861.

The "Strange Case of Britain" shows a different path. The nation was "forged" through a long process, not a revolution. The Act of Union (1707) united England and Scotland, and Ireland was forcibly incorporated in 1801, with a dominant English culture and symbols (Union Jack, English language) being imposed on the other ethnic groups.

The chapter also explores how the nation was "visualised" using female allegories, such as Marianne in France and Germania in Germany, to give the abstract idea of a nation a concrete, relatable form.

Finally, by the late nineteenth century, nationalism became a more aggressive, chauvinistic force, often manipulated by states for imperialist goals. This was most explosive in the Balkans, a region of intense ethnic rivalry and the competing ambitions of the Great Powers. These "nationalist tensions" made the Balkans the "powder keg" of Europe, ultimately leading to the First World War in 1914.

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NCERT Textbook Questions and Answers

Write in brief (Page 27)

Question 1: Write a note on:
(a) Guiseppe Mazzini
(b) Count Camillo de Cavour
(c) The Greek war of independence
(d) Frankfurt Parliament
(e) The role of women in nationalist struggles

Answer-

(a) Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary, often called the 'soul' of Italian unification. Born in Genoa in 1807, he was a member of the Carbonari secret society. He founded two underground societies: 'Young Italy' in Marseilles and 'Young Europe' in Berne. Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind, so Italy had to be forged into a single, unified republic. His relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision for democratic republics frightened the conservative order. Austrian Chancellor Metternich described him as 'the most dangerous enemy of our social order'.

(b) Count Camillo de Cavour was the 'brain' of Italian unification and the Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont. He was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. He was a wealthy, educated liberal who believed in pragmatic 'Realpolitik'. His primary goal was to make Sardinia-Piedmont strong enough to defeat Austria. He spoke French better than Italian and, through a "tactful diplomatic alliance" with France, he succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859, liberating the northern Italian region of Lombardy.

(c) The Greek war of independence (1821-1832) was a nationalist struggle against the "Ottoman Empire," which had ruled Greece since the fifteenth century. The war was inspired by revolutionary nationalism and fuelled by "Romanticism." West European 'Philhellenes' (lovers of Greek culture) supported the cause, lauding Greece as the 'cradle of European civilisation'. Poets like Lord Byron organised funds and even fought in the war (where he died). The war mobilised public opinion across Europe and, finally, the "Treaty of Constantinople" in 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.

(d) The Frankfurt Parliament was an all-German National Assembly formed by middle-class professionals, businessmen, and prosperous artisans from various German regions. In the wake of the 1848 liberal revolutions, its 831 elected representatives convened in the Church of St. Paul on 18 May 1848. They drafted a constitution for a unified German nation to be headed by a "constitutional monarchy." However, when they offered the crown to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly. The parliament, which was dominated by the middle class, also lost its popular support by resisting the demands of workers. In the end, troops were called in, and the assembly was forcibly disbanded.

(e) Women played an active and significant role in nationalist struggles across Europe. They did not just observe; they "participated" actively. They founded their own "political associations" and newspapers to voice their opinions. They took part in political meetings, protests, and "demonstrations." However, they were consistently denied "suffrage rights" (the right to vote). During the Frankfurt Parliament, for instance, women were only permitted to attend as "observers" from the visitors' gallery, highlighting their exclusion from political power despite their contributions.

Question 2: What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people?

Answer-
The French revolutionaries took several crucial steps to create a sense of collective identity (nationalism) among the French people, transferring loyalty from the king to the nation:

1.Ideas of the Nation: They introduced the concepts of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen), which emphasised a community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.

2. New Symbols: The old royal standard (flag) was replaced by the new "tricolour" flag.

3. New Institutions: The "Estates-General" (a feudal assembly) was renamed the "National Assembly" and was elected by a body of active citizens.

4. Cultural Unity: New hymns were composed, oaths were taken, and martyrs were commemorated, all in the name of the nation.

5. Centralised Administration: A "centralised administrative system" was established, which formulated "uniform laws" for all citizens within its territory.

6. Economic Unity: Internal "customs duties" and dues were abolished. A "uniform system of weights and measures" was adopted to facilitate trade.

7. National Language: "Regional dialects" were discouraged, and "French," as spoken and written in Paris, was promoted as the "common language" of the nation.

Question 3: Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way they were portrayed?

Answer-
Marianne and Germania were female "allegories" for the nations of France and Germany, respectively. An allegory is a symbolic representation used to give an abstract idea (like 'liberty', 'justice', or 'the nation') a concrete, human form.

Marianne: She was the allegory for the French Republic. Her characteristics were drawn from symbols of Liberty and the Republic—the "red cap," the "tricolour," and the "cockade." Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares, and her image was marked on coins and stamps.
Germania: She was the allegory for the German nation. Germania is typically depicted wearing a "crown of oak leaves," as the German oak stands for "heroism." She is often shown with a sword and shield, embodying strength and readiness to defend the German 'Fatherland'.

Importance: The importance of portraying the nation in this way was to "visualise the nation." It made the abstract concept of a 'nation-state' tangible and relatable to the common people. This personification helped foster a sense of collective identity and national unity, giving citizens a focal point for their patriotic sentiments.

Question 4: Briefly trace the process of German unification.

Answer-
The process of German unification, after the failure of the 1848 liberal Frankfurt Parliament, was led by the state of "Prussia" and its "Junker" (large landowner) aristocracy.

1. Leadership of Bismarck: The architect of this process was Prussia’s chief minister, "Otto von Bismarck." He rejected the liberal path and adopted a policy of "blood and iron" (Realpolitik), relying on the Prussian army and bureaucracy.

2. Three Wars: Bismarck's strategy involved three decisive wars fought over seven years (1864–1871) to achieve Prussian dominance and unify Germany.

(a) War with Denmark (1864): Prussia and Austria jointly defeated Denmark to "liberate" the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.
(b) Austro-Prussian War (1866): Bismarck provoked a war with Austria, decisively defeating them in seven weeks. This victory "ousted Austria" from the German Confederation and established Prussian hegemony over the northern German states.
(c) Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871): Bismarck engineered a conflict with France to draw the southern German states into an alliance. The Prussian victory was swift, leading to the capture of the French emperor and the fall of Paris.

3. Proclamation of the Empire: The victory over France completed the unification. On 18 January 1871, in the "Hall of Mirrors" at the Palace of Versailles, the new "German Empire" was proclaimed. The Prussian King, "Kaiser Wilhelm I," was declared the German Emperor, marking the culmination of the "top-down" unification process.

Question 5: What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him?

Answer-
Napoleon introduced several significant changes, many of which were codified in the "Civil Code of 1804," also known as the "Napoleonic Code," to make administration more efficient and rational.

1. Legal Equality: The Code "abolished all privileges based on birth," establishing "equality before the law" for all citizens.

2. Right to Property: It firmly secured the "right to property."

3. Administrative Simplification: In territories like the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany, Napoleon simplified "administrative divisions."

4. Abolition of Feudalism: He "abolished the feudal system" entirely. He freed peasants from "serfdom and manorial dues," which were the heavy obligations owed to feudal lords.

5. Urban Reforms: In the towns, "guild restrictions" (which limited competition and entry into trades) were removed.

6. Infrastructure and Economic Standardisation: "Transport and communication" systems were improved. He introduced "uniform laws," "standardised weights and measures," and a "common national currency" to facilitate the movement of goods and capital, boosting trade for the new business and middle classes.

Discuss (Page 27)

Question 1: Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?

Answer-
The "1848 revolution of the liberals" refers to the series of uprisings led by the educated, propertied "middle classes" (including professionals, businessmen, and teachers) that occurred simultaneously with the revolts of the poor, unemployed workers and peasants. While the poor were protesting food shortages, the middle-class liberals were demanding political change.

The main ideas supported by the liberals were:
(a) Political Ideas: Liberals demanded the end of "autocracy" and "clerical privileges." They advocated for "constitutionalism" with "national unification." They wanted to create "nation-states" based on "parliamentary principles," which included a written constitution, an elected parliament, "freedom of the press," and "freedom of association." They were not, however, advocates for universal suffrage; most supported "suffrage" being limited to men of property.

(b) Social Ideas: Socially, the liberals championed the concept of "individual freedom" and legal equality for all (men). They opposed the "aristocratic privileges" that were based on birth and advocated for a society where social standing was based on merit.

(c) Economic Ideas: Economically, liberalism stood for the "freedom of markets" and the abolition of "state-imposed restrictions" on the movement of goods and capital. They championed the "inviolability of private property." A key demand was the creation of a unified economic territory, as seen in the "Zollverein" (customs union) of 1834, which abolished most "tariff barriers" in the German states.

Question 2: Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe.

Answer-
Culture played a crucial role in developing and expressing nationalist sentiments, particularly through the cultural movement known as "Romanticism." Romantics focused on emotions, intuition, and vernacular folk culture rather than on reason and science.

1. German 'Volksgeist': The German philosopher "Johann Gottfried Herder" argued that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people—das Volk. He believed the true "spirit of the nation" (Volksgeist) was popularised through "folk songs, folk poetry, and folk dances." The Grimm brothers, for example, collected traditional German "folktales" not just as children's stories but as an expression of a pure, authentic German spirit.

2. Polish National Opera and Language: Poland had been "partitioned" by Russia, Prussia, and Austria and no longer existed as a state. Nationalism was kept alive through its culture. "Karol Kurpinski," for example, celebrated the national struggle through his "operas and music," turning folk dances like the "polonaise" and "mazurka" into nationalist symbols. Furthermore, "language" became a tool of resistance; the Polish language was used in church gatherings as a "symbol of struggle" against Russian linguistic domination.

3. Greek War of Independence (Romanticism): The "Greek war of independence" (1821) was heavily supported by Romantic nationalists. Western Europeans, who saw Greece as the "cradle of European civilisation," were moved to support the Greek struggle. The English poet "Lord Byron" is a famous example; he organised funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of fever in 1824. His involvement created a wave of "Philhellenic" (pro-Greek) sentiment across Europe, mobilising public opinion.

Question 3: Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century.

Answer-
The development of nation-states in the nineteenth century followed different paths. The cases of Germany and Italy demonstrate development through state-led "unification," while Britain shows a long-term "forging" of identity.

(a) Germany (Unification through 'Blood and Iron'):
Before unification, "Germany" was a loose confederation of 39 states. The liberal nationalist initiative of 1848 (Frankfurt Parliament) failed. Consequently, the nation-state was "forged" from the top-down by the "conservative" leadership of "Prussia," led by "Otto von Bismarck." This was not a popular revolution but a state-led process based on "Realpolitik" (pragmatic politics) and military power. Bismarck used the policy of "blood and iron" to fight "three wars" (against Denmark, Austria, and France) to consolidate Prussian power and unite the German states. This process culminated in 1871 with the proclamation of the "German Empire," a "constitutional monarchy" heavily dominated by Prussian autocratic and militaristic values.

(b) Italy (A Multi-faceted Unification):
Like Germany, Italy was "politically fragmented" into multiple "dynastic states" and was also dominated by a foreign power (the "Habsburg Empire" in the north). The development of the Italian nation-state was more complex, involving three distinct approaches. First was the "revolutionary" republican ideal of "Giuseppe Mazzini" (the 'soul'), who inspired nationalism from below. Second was the "pragmatic, diplomatic" statecraft of "Count Cavour," the Prime Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont (the 'brain'), who used an alliance with France to oust Austria. Third was the "popular military" campaign of "Giuseppe Garibaldi" (the 'sword'), whose 'Red Shirts' liberated the south (Kingdom of the Two Sicilies). This combination of 'top-down' (Cavour) and 'bottom-up' (Garibaldi) efforts resulted in the proclamation of the "Kingdom of Italy" in 1861 under King Victor Emmanuel II.

Question 4: How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?

Answer-
The history of nationalism in Britain, often called the "strange case of Britain," was fundamentally different from the revolutionary "upheavals" (like in France) or state-led unifications (like in Germany and Italy) seen on the continent.

1. A Long, Evolutionary Process: The formation of the British nation-state was not a sudden event but a "long-drawn-out process" that occurred over centuries. There was no single "British nation" at the start; the British Isles were inhabited by distinct "ethnic groups" (English, Welsh, Scot, Irish).

2. Forged by Domination, Not Revolution: The nation was "forged" through the political and economic domination of the "English" nation over the others. As the English parliament grew in power and England grew in wealth, it extended its influence.

3. Key Legislative Acts: The nation was built through legislation, not war (at least not internally, in the same way). The "Act of Union (1707)" between England and "Scotland" created the "United Kingdom of Great Britain." This was a hostile merger for many Scots, leading to the "systematic suppression" of Scotland's distinct culture and political institutions.

4. Forcible Incorporation: "Ireland" met a similar fate. It was a country deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants. After a failed Catholic revolt led by Wolfe Tone in 1798, Britain "forcibly incorporated" Ireland into the United Kingdom in 1801.

5. Imposition of Culture: A "new 'British nation'" was created by propagating a "dominant English culture." "Symbols of the new Britain," such as the "Union Jack" (flag), "God Save the Noble King" (national anthem), and the "English language," were actively promoted, while the national cultures of the other regions were sidelined.

Question 5: Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

Answer-
Nationalist tensions emerged in the Balkans in the late nineteenth century for three primary reasons, making the region the "powder keg" of Europe:

1. Ethnic and Nationalist Diversity: The Balkans was a region of immense "ethnic and geographical variation," including modern-day Romanians, Bulgarians, Albanians, Greeks, Croats, Serbs, and Slovenes. The spread of "romantic nationalism" led these different "Slavic" and other nationalities to dream of "independence" and their own nation-states.

2. Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire: For centuries, this entire region had been under the control of the "Ottoman Empire." As the empire "disintegrated" throughout the nineteenth century, it created a power vacuum. One by one, the "Balkan nationalities" declared independence, basing their claims on their distinct national identities.

3. Rivalries (Internal and External): The situation became explosive due to two sets of rivalries:
(a) Internal Rivalry: The newly independent Balkan states were "fiercely jealous" of each other. Each state sought to "expand its territory" at the expense of its neighbours, using historical claims to justify their expansionist goals.
(b) External Rivalry (The "Big Powers"): The "Great Powers" of Europe (Russia, Germany, England, Austria-Hungary) were locked in an "intense rivalry" for "imperial" dominance. They were keen to "counter the hold" of other powers over the Balkans and extend their own "control," "trade," and "military might" in the strategic region.

This toxic mix of local nationalism, expansionist goals, and "Big Power" imperialism made any conflict in the Balkans likely to draw in all of
Europe, which is exactly what happened in 1914, sparking the "First World War."

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Important Keywords from the Chapter

• Nationalism: A feeling of collective belonging and shared identity among people who live in a defined territory and share a common history, culture, or language.
• Nation-State: A state in which the great majority of citizens share a common, single national identity, and the state's territory is co-terminus with this identity.
• Absolutism: A system of government where the monarch holds absolute, unrestricted power.
• Frédéric Sorrieu: A French artist who, in 1848, prepared a series of prints visualising his dream of a world made up of 'democratic and social Republics'.
• La Patrie / Le Citoyen: French terms for 'the fatherland' and 'the citizen', ideas used during the French Revolution to foster national identity.
• Napoleonic Code (1804): The French Civil Code that abolished privileges based on birth, established equality before the law, and secured the right to property.
• Conservatism: A political philosophy that stresses tradition, established institutions, and gradual change, favouring the restoration of monarchies after 1815.
• Treaty of Vienna (1815): The peace settlement drawn up by the Great Powers (Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria) after Napoleon's defeat, aimed at restoring the old monarchical order.
• Liberalism: A political and economic philosophy (of the middle class) favouring individual freedom, constitutional government, parliamentary representation, and free markets (laissez-faire).
• Zollverein: A customs union formed in 1834 at the initiative of Prussia, which abolished tariff barriers and unified the economies of most German states.
• Giuseppe Mazzini: An Italian revolutionary; the 'soul' of Italian unification who founded 'Young Italy'.
• Romanticism: A cultural movement that rejected reason and science, focusing instead on emotion, intuition, and vernacular folk culture (Volksgeist) to create a sense of national feeling.
• Volksgeist: A German Romantic term (popularised by Herder) meaning the 'spirit of the people' or 'national spirit', believed to be found in 'das Volk' (the common people).
* Frankfurt Parliament (1848): The all-German National Assembly elected by the middle class, which failed in its attempt to unify Germany under a liberal constitution.
• Allegory: A symbolic representation of an abstract idea (like 'nation' or 'liberty') using a person or an object. (e.g., Marianne, Germania).
• Otto von Bismarck: The Prussian Chief Minister who engineered the unification of Germany through a policy of 'blood and iron'.
• Junkers: The large, wealthy landowners of Prussia who dominated the state and the army.
• Count Camillo de Cavour: The Prime Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont; the 'brain' of Italian unification.
• Giuseppe Garibaldi: An Italian revolutionary and leader of the 'Red Shirts'; the 'sword' of Italian unification.
• Balkans: A volatile region of south-eastern Europe (the 'powder keg') where nationalist tensions and imperial rivalries led to World War I.
• Imperialism: The policy of a strong nation extending its control and influence over weaker territories.
• Slavs: The diverse group of ethnic nationalities (like Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Russians) who inhabited Eastern Europe and the Balkans.